Brazil e Estados Unidos são os maiores produtores mundiais de bioetanol e a principal aplicação desse álcool é como combustível. Como o etanol brasileiro é o mais barato do mundo, há um interesse crescente no seu uso como precursor nas biorefinarias para síntese de moléculas maiores. O bioetanol pode ser usado na produção direta de olefinas como etileno, propileno, 1,3-butadieno e hidrocarbonetos maiores, assim como a produção de moléculas oxigenadas, como 1-butanol, acetato de etila, acetaldeído e ácido acético. Nesse review crítico, será discutido o desenvolvimento de catálise heterogênea para a conversão de etanol em produtos com maior valor agregado.

Brazil and the USA are the major bioethanol producers in the world, and the main application of this alcohol is as fuel. Since Brazilian ethanol is the cheapest in the world, there is a crescent interest in its use as a building block for biorefineries. Bioethanol can be used for the direct production of drop-in chemicals, such as ethylene, propylene, 1,3-butadiene and larger hydrocarbons, as well as for the production of oxygenated molecules, such as 1-butanol, ethyl acetate, acetaldehyde, and acetic acid. In this critical review, the development of heterogeneous catalysts for the conversion of ethanol into these commodity chemicals will be discussed.

Quantificação e identificação de misturas de biodiesel de soja com petrodiesel foram realizadas via espectrometria de massas utilizando duas técnicas de ionização: electrospray (ESI) e Venturi easy ambient sonic-spray em seu modo líquido (V L-EASI). Diferentes misturas de biodiesel/petrodiesel (de B0 até B100) foram diluídas e diretamente injetadas e analisadas por ambas as técnicas. Para investigar a adulteração em blendas Bn, misturas óleo de soja/biodiesel e óleo de soja/petrodiesel foram analisadas. Curvas analíticas foram obtidas em triplicata. As duas técnicas apresentaram quantificação suficientemente precisa na faixa de B1-B20. Estas técnicas foram úteis também na detecção de contaminação ou adulteração das misturas Bn com óleos vegetais. A técnica de ESI é hoje largamente difundida e comercialmente acessível enquanto que uma fonte de V L-EASI pode ser facilmente montada usando peças comuns de laboratório dispensando a aplicação de altas voltagens. As duas técnicas não necessitam de etapas de pré-separação ou derivatização e, portanto, oferecem métodos simples e rápidos para quantificação de misturas Bn. A detecção instantânea e abrangente da composição molecular permite o controle de qualidade e tipificação de biodiesel e, eventualmente, de óleos vegetais em misturas ilegais.

Quantitation and identification of blends of soybean biodiesel with petrodiesel were performed via mass spectrometry using two ionization techniques: electrospray ionization (ESI) and Venturi easy ambient sonic-spray ionization in its liquid mode (V L-EASI). Different soybean biodiesel/petrodiesel blends (from B0 to B100) were diluted and then directly infused and analyzed by both techniques. To investigate adulteration of Bn blends, different soybean oil/biodiesel and soybean oil/petrodiesel blends were analyzed. Analytical curves were obtained in three replicates. The two techniques were shown to provide reasonably accurate quantitation in the B1-B20 range. These techniques were also successfully used to detect contamination or adulteration of Bn blends with vegetable oils. ESI is a widely used and commercially available technique whereas a V L-EASI source can be easily mounted using common laboratory parts requiring no use of high voltages. Both techniques require no pre-separation or derivatization steps and offer, therefore, simple and fast methods for the quantitation of Bn blends. The comprehensive snapshots of the molecular composition also allow quality control and typification of the biodiesel and eventually of the vegetable oils in illegal admixtures.

The contextualized understanding of concepts in Chemistry by students from other areas is a challenging task. In this experiment, the synthesis of biodiesel is done by base catalyzed transesterification of refined soy oil with methanol at room temperature and common glassware found in any chemistry laboratory. The proposal permits introducing several concepts, such as that of emulsion, viscosity and catalysis to illustrate an activity based on an actual problem. In this didactic approach, some common problems of biodiesel production, such as soap formation and phase separation, are introduced into the procedure in order to raise questions and motivate the students to participate in the experimental work and stimulate reflections about critical aspects of biodiesel production. This experiment was carried out in the first semester of 2006, in experimental general chemistry taken by physics and agricultural, civil and chemical engineering students of UNICAMP.

Este trabalho objetivou classificar e selecionar clones de Eucalyptus sp, tendo em vista a qualidade das polpas kraft obtidas a partir de cada material. Os clones foram classificados quanto a rendimento depurado, viscosidade da polpa e álcali ativo usado no processo de polpação. A classificação dos clones foi realizada por meio da análise de agrupamento, utilizando-se o método de otimização de Tocher. A análise de agrupamento permitiu a separação dos clones em cinco grupos distintos, sendo encontrados grupos de clones com alto, médio e baixo potenciais para produção de polpa celulósica. As características que mais contribuíram para a divergência foram o rendimento depurado (58,1%) e a viscosidade da polpa celulósica (35,0%). Em geral, nos clones avaliados foram verificadas grandes variações com relação aos parâmetros estudados.

The objectives of this study were to classify and select clones of Eucalyptus sp, aiming at pulp quality improvement. The clones were classified according to the screened yield, pulp viscosity and active alkali used for pulping. Classification of the clones was achieved by cluster analysis using the Tocher method. The clones were classified in groups having high, medium and low potential for pulp production. The results showed that the parameter that most contributed to group the different Eucalyptus sp clones was the screened yield (58,1%), followed by pulp viscosity (35,0%). In general, large variation was observed for the parameters evaluated.

Este trabalho descreve nosso esforço em heterogeneizar catalisadores para epoxidação. Tanto o molibdênio ancorado quanto o engaiolado pelo método de sol-gel mostraram grande seletividade, mas possuem suas atividades fortemente reduzidas. Por outro lado, silicatos de molibdênio foram muito ativos e estáveis até a formação de diols na mistura reacional. Catalisadores heterogeneizados de rênio foram menos ativos, mas permitiram o uso do peróxido de hidrogênio anidro como oxidante. Contudo, o alto custo e a dificuldade de regeneração impedem a aplicação industrial destes catalisadores. Durante estas investigações, descobrimos que a alumina sozinha é ativa para epoxidação com peróxido de hidrogênio anidro, fornecendo boas conversões para epóxidos com alta seletividade. Mais pesquisa é necessária para esclarecer a natureza dos grupos hidroxilas responsáveis pela atividade catalítica, para produzir materiais que permitem a obtenção de epóxidos com alta seletividade em condições industriais.

This account describes our efforts to heterogenize epoxidation catalysts. Anchored and sol-gel entrapped molybdenum were shown to be very selective, but had a strongly reduced activity. On the other hand, molybdenum silicates were very active and stable as long as no diols were present in the reaction mixture. Heterogenized rhenium catalysts were less active but allowed the use of anhydrous hydrogen peroxide as oxidant. However, the high cost and difficult regeneration prevents the industrial use of these catalysts. During these investigations, we found that alumina alone is active in the epoxidation with anhydrous hydrogen peroxide, giving good conversions to epoxides with high selectivity. More research is needed in order to clarify the nature of the hydroxyl groups responsible for its catalytic activity and thus to produce an appropriate material which would allow the obtention of epoxides with high selectivity under industrial conditions.

In this work we report the synthesis of some organolanthanide compounds which were identified as LnCl2Cp(PzA)2, Ln = Nd, Sm, Eu and Tb, Cp = cyclopentadienyl and PzA = pirazinamide, by elemental analyses, complexometric titration with EDTA, thermal analyses and IR spectra. Thermal analysis and infrared spectra indicated that the coordination of the pyrazinamide to the lanthanide ions was made by the O atom of the carbonyl group and by one or both N atoms of the pyrazinamide ring. This class of compound showed catalytic activity of ca. 4.0 to 6.4 kgPE molLn-1 h-1 bar-1, in ethylene polymerization, using methylaluminoxane as cocatalyst. The resulting polyethylene presented low crystallinity (20%).

Silicatos contendo cobre foram preparados pelo processo sol-gel catalisado por ácido. Os materiais foram caracterizados por difração e fluorescência de raios X, espectroscopia EPR, análise elementar, fisissorção de N2, termogravimetria, calorimetria diferencial de varredura, redução à temperatura programada, espectroscopia FTIR e UV/VIS. Os silicatos mostram-se catalisadores eficientes para a oxidação do cicloexano com hidroperóxido de tert-butila como oxidante e obtiveram-se cicloexanona e cicloexanol como produtos principais da reação. O metal mostrou-se fracamente ligado à matriz de sílica e foi observada lixiviação do metal para a fase líquida. A lixiviação foi quantificada por fluorescência de raios X. Testes de lixiviação mostraram que a atividade catalítica é devida às espécies de cobre suportadas. O cobre lixiviado não mostrou nenhuma atividade catalítica em fase homogênea.

Copper containing silicates have been prepared by an acid-catalyzed sol-gel process. The materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction and fluorescence, EPR spectroscopy, elemental analysis, N2-physisorption, thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, temperature-programmed reduction, FTIR and UV/VIS spectroscopy. The silicates were shown to be efficient catalysts for the oxidation of cyclohexane with tert-butyl hydroperoxide as oxidant. Cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone were obtained as the main products. The metal was shown to be weakly bound to the silicate matrix and metal leaching was observed. Leaching was quantified by X-ray fluorescence and leaching tests showed that the catalytic activity is due to supported copper species. Leached copper showed no activity in the homogeneous phase.

The use of zeolites and other molecular sieves as catalysts is discussed at an introductory level. The text includes a brief historic background on the use of zeolites in catalysis, and a discussion of some chemical and physical properties of silicalite, aluminosilicate, and aluminophosphate molecular sieves. The strategies currently used to chemically modify zeolites and related materials to produce catalysts with increased activity and selectivity are discussed, including the use of redox molecular sieves for hydrocarbon oxidation and the leaching of the active metals from the support.

O presente trabalho relata a preparação e aplicação de três vinilcicloexenos devidamente funcionalizados (2,2-dimetil-3-vinilcicloex-3-en-1-ol, 2,2-dimetil-3-vinilcicloex-3-en-1-ona e 3,3-dimetil-2-vinilcicloexeno) em reações de Diels-Alder com ésteres <FONT FACE=Symbol>a,b</FONT>-insaturados (tiglato de metila e angelato de metila). Esta abordagem levou à síntese racêmica de dez octalinas possuindo esqueleto drimânico rearranjado (4 diastereoisômeros do 1-metoxicarbonil-6-hidroxi-1,2,5,5-tetrametil-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octaidronaftaleno; 1-metoxicarbonil-6-oxo-1,2,5,5-tetrametil-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 -ocataidronaftaleno; 2-metoxicarbonil-6-oxo-1,2,5,5-tetrametil-1,2,3,5,6,7, 8,8a-octaidronaftaleno; 3 diastereoisômeros do 1-metoxicarbonil-1,2,5,5-tetrametil-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octaidronaftaleno e 2-metoxicarbonil-1,2,5,5-tetrametil-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octaidronaftaleno) . Para a preparação dos dienos, utilizou-se a reação de acoplamento catalisada por paládio (reação de Stille) entre enoltriflatos (preparados pelo protocolo de Stang) e tri-n-butilvinilestanana. A estereoquímica relativa dos produtos foi estabelecida a partir de métodos espectroscópicos e análise de difração de raios-X de alguns dos derivados. Estes dados podem servir para a identificação de novos produtos naturais e corrigir algumas estruturas da literatura.

A full account to the preparation and application of three appropriately substituted vinylcyclohexenes (2,2-dimethyl-3-vinylcyclohex-3-en-1-ol, 2,2-dimethyl-3-vinylcyclohex-3-en-1-one and 3,3-dimethyl-2-vinylcyclohexene) in thermal Diels-Alder reactions with alpha,beta-unsaturated esters (methyl tiglate and methyl angelate) is given. This approach delivered the racemic synthesis of ten octalin derivatives bearing a rearranged drimane skeleton (4 diastereomers of 1-methoxycarbonyl-6-hydroxy-1,2,5,5-tetramethyl-1,2,3,5,6,7, 8,8a-octahydronaphthalene; 1-methoxycarbonyl-6-oxo-1,2,5,5-tetramethyl-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8-octahydronaphthalene; 2-methoxycarbonyl-6-oxo-1,2,5,5-tetramethyl-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydronaphthalene; 3 diastereomers of 1-methoxycarbonyl-1,2,5,5-tetramethyl-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydronaphthalene and 2-methoxycarbonyl-1,2,5,5-tetramethyl-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydronaphthalene) . Central synthetic features included preparation of enoltriflates by Stang's protocol and the successful palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction (Stille reaction) of the triflate with the tri-n-butylvinylstannane. The octalins relative stereochemistry was unequivocally ascertained by spectroscopic methods and/or X-ray crystallography and these data now stand as useful tools to support the correct assignment of related natural products usually isolated in minute amounts.

The world reserves of petroleum will finish in about 100 years. For a tropical country like Brazil, biomass will be the natural substitute for petroleum. For the best utilization of biomass, it first needs to be separated into its principal components: cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignins, vegetable and essential oils, non-structural carbohydrates, bark and foliage. All feedstocks for the chemical industry can be obtained from these biomass components, as shown in the first part of this paper. In the second part we discuss how the major products from petrochemicals can be obtained from the different biomass components. We show that Brazil can use different strategies, compared to other countries, to obtain petrochemical products, which could result in innovations. However, it is necessary that the government starts to invest immediately in order to keep the petrochemical industries competitive with foreign industries, so that they continue to be one of Brazil's major employers.

Lignina de piaçava (Attalea funifera) foi analisada por espectroscopia RMN de hidrogênio e carbono-13. A natureza HGS dessa lignina foi confirmada, mas unidades pcumarato tambem estão presentes na estrutura da lignina. Os conteúdos de hidroxilas fenólicas e metoxilas por unidade fenilpropânica, determinados por RMN de ¹H, foram 0,57 e 0,68, respectivamente e estão em concordância com os dados obtidos por métodos clássicos. A pequena extensão da condensação da lignina (35%) foi explicada pelo alto conteúdo de estruturas de álcool cinamílico, evidenciadas por RMN de 13C-DEPT. Uma fórmula C9 estendida foi determinada para a lignina da piaçava: <img SRC="http:/img/fbpe/jbchs/v11n5/a10img01.gif">

Lignin of piassava (Attalea funifera) was analyzed by ¹H- and 13C-NMR spectroscopy. The HGS-nature of this lignin was confirmed but p-coumarate units are also present in the lignin. Methoxyl and phenolic hydroxyl contents per phenylpropanic unit were determined by ¹HNMR spectroscopy to be 0.57 and 0.68, respectively and are in agreement with wet chemistry methods. A small extent of lignin condensation (35%) was explained by the high content of cinnamyl alcohol structures, evidenced by 13CNMR-DEPT. An extended C9formula for the piassava lignin was established to be <img SRC="http:/img/fbpe/jbchs/v11n5/a10img01.gif">

The synthesis, characterization and some applications in catalysis of pillared clays are described at an introductory level. The use of x-ray diffraction, surface area measurements, thermal analysis, IR spectrophotometry and solid-state NMR in the characterization of pillared clays is briefly discussed. Pillarization followed by doping or introduction of metal clusters into clays could lead to the development of selective heterogeneous catalysts.

A transesterificação de óleos vegetais com metanol, bem como as principais aplicações de ésteres metílicos de ácidos graxos, são revisadas. São descritos os aspectos gerais desse processo e a aplicabilidade de diferentes tipos de catalisadores (ácidos, hidróxidos, alcóxidos e carbonatos de metais alcalinos, enzimas e bases não-iônicas, como aminas, amidinas, guanidinas e triamino(imino)fosforanos). Enfoque especial é dado às guanidinas, que podem ser facilmente heterogeneizadas em polímeros orgânicos. No entanto, as bases ancoradas lixiviam dos polímeros. Novas estratégias para a obtenção de guanidinas heterogeneizadas mais resistentes à lixiviação são propostas. Finalmente, são descritas várias aplicações para ésteres de ácidos graxos, obtidos por transesterificação de óleos vegetais.

The transesterification of vegetable oils with methanol as well as the main uses of the fatty acid methyl esters are reviewed. The general aspects of this process and the applicability of different types of catalysts (acids, alkaline metal hydroxides, alkoxides and carbonates, enzymes and non-ionic bases, such as amines, amidines, guanidines and triamino(imino)phosphoranes) are described. Special attention is given to guanidines, which can be easily heterogenized on organic polymers. However, the anchored catalysts show leaching problems. New strategies to obtain non-leaching guanidine-containing catalysts are proposed. Finally, several applications of fatty acid esters, obtained by transesterification of vegetable oils, are described.